438. happy flippin Christmas… or else…

437. http://moviedistributionfacts.wordpress.com/about/

http://moviedistributionfacts.wordpress.com/about/

436. Media Studies soft & easy? – Bah – humbug

http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/education/article5361672.ece

435. FM2: BRITISH AND AMERICAN FILM

Straight from wjec website:

 

 

 

 

 

 

Focus of the Unit

This unit focuses on two key aspects of Film Studies:

 

•

 

 

 

 

 

producers and audiences and the relationship between them

•

 

 

 

 

 

the role of macro features of film (narrative and genre) in constructing

meanings.

These will be studied in the context of two national cinemas – those of the UK and

the USA. Critical understanding will be fostered through:

 

 

 

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

 

the interrelationship between producers and audiences, with a particular

focus on aspects of the film industry and audience behaviour

 

 

 

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

 

narrative and genre characteristics of UK and US films

•

 

 

 

personal response to films, mediated by the study of films and their contexts.

 

 

This unit emphasises the

 

 

 

interaction

of its twin areas of study: the film industry (as

producer/supplier of films) and audiences (as purchasers/consumers of films). This

provides a context for the study of the narrative and genre features of UK and US

films, including the ways in which they represent social reality.

 

 

 

 

For section A of this unit, candidates will study the UK and US film industry, the

audiences for films produced by these industries and their interrelationship.

(a) The Film Industry

The study of the Film Industry requires a focus on basic aspects of the

working of:

The study of the Film Industry requires a focus on basic aspects of the

working of:

 

Content

Section A: Producers and Audiences

Content

Section A: Producers and Audiences

For section A of this unit, candidates will study the UK and US film industry, the

audiences for films produced by these industries and their interrelationship.

(a) The Film Industry

The study of the Film Industry requires a focus on basic aspects of the

working of:

The study of the Film Industry requires a focus on basic aspects of the

working of:

 

This unit emphasises the

 

 

 

 

interaction

of its twin areas of study: the film industry (as

producer/supplier of films) and audiences (as purchasers/consumers of films). This

provides a context for the study of the narrative and genre features of UK and US

films, including the ways in which they represent social reality.

 

 

 

 

For section A of this unit, candidates will study the UK and US film industry, the

audiences for films produced by these industries and their interrelationship.

(a) The Film Industry

The study of the Film Industry requires a focus on basic aspects of the

working of:

The study of the Film Industry requires a focus on basic aspects of the

working of:

 

Content

Section A: Producers and Audiences

Content

Section A: Producers and Audiences

For section A of this unit, candidates will study the UK and US film industry, the

audiences for films produced by these industries and their interrelationship.

(a) The Film Industry

The study of the Film Industry requires a focus on basic aspects of the

working of:

The study of the Film Industry requires a focus on basic aspects of the

working of:

•

 

 

 

 

the American film industry – specifically contemporary Hollywood,

including its impact on UK audiences;

 

 

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

the British film industry – specifically the contemporary industry,

including issues of independence, distinctiveness and profitability.

Aspects of

 

 

 

 

finance, organisation, production, distribution (including

 

marketing

 

 

 

 

) and exhibition will be studied, particularly through case studies.

(b) The Film Audience

The Film Audience requires a focus on:

The Film Audience requires a focus on:

 

marketing

 

 

 

 

 

) and exhibition will be studied, particularly through case studies.

(b) The Film Audience

The Film Audience requires a focus on:

The Film Audience requires a focus on:

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

film demand and supply, specifically in the UK today

•

 

 

 

 

the consumption of film, including cinema-going and the importance of

home cinema and the internet, together with the significance of digital

technologies in delivering different kinds of film experience.

A study of the importance of

 

 

 

 

genre and stars,

both for producers and for

audiences will provide a useful bridge between this section and sections B

and C.

 

 

 

 

(c) The Interrelationship between Producers and Audiences: case studies

It is recommended that case studies are used as the basis for study in this

unit. Case studies should be selected to explore the interrelationship

between producers and audiences – sometimes appearing to be supply-led,

sometimes demand-led. The significance of the convergence of different

media (mobile phone, internet, games console, etc.) in changing the nature of

the producer – audience relationship could also be explored. Contemporary

case studies may cover the following areas:

 

It is recommended that case studies are used as the basis for study in this

unit. Case studies should be selected to explore the interrelationship

between producers and audiences – sometimes appearing to be supply-led,

sometimes demand-led. The significance of the convergence of different

media (mobile phone, internet, games console, etc.) in changing the nature of

the producer – audience relationship could also be explored. Contemporary

case studies may cover the following areas:

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

Hollywood film producers and the institutional frameworks within which

they operate (for example as part of large conglomerate business

corporations).

 

 

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

UK film producers and the institutional frameworks within which they

operate (for example in relation to support from the UK Film Council

and through co-production deals).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

 

the importance of genre and stars for US/UK producers and for

audiences

 

 

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

 

film marketing (including specific marketing materials such as posters,

dvd covers and ‘official’ internet sites)

 

 

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

 

film reviews – both those produced by critics for circulation in other

media and those produced by fans

 

 

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

 

film exhibition, including multiplexes and independent cinemas, as well

as other types of venue, and online exhibition, including consideration

of different kinds of film viewing experience

 

 

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

 

the availability of independent low budget films, and foreign language

films in the UK, including Bollywood films

 

 

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

 

the social practice of participation in contemporary ‘film culture’ which

includes cinema-going, online viewing, and home cinema – as well as

ways in which the film experience is amplified through media

convergence.

 

 

 

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

 

star images – both those put into circulation by the industry and by

fans.

 

 

 

 

Section B: British Film Topics

One or more of the following topics will be offered. Each topic requires the study of at

least

 

 

 

 

 

two

films with a focus on how macro elements of film, particularly narrative,

construct meanings and raise issues.

 

 

 

 

The following options within each topic are available for first examination

in Winter 2009 examination and last examination in Winter 2012.

(a) British Film and Genre

This topic looks at some of the distinctive characteristics of one of the

prescribed genres (see below) with a particular focus on narrative

development and themes. There may be some specific focus on context and

on issues of representation of character, situation and place. The principal

emphasis, however, is on engaging with the chosen films. The candidate

must show a detailed knowledge of a minimum of

 

 

 

 

 

two

films.

Genres for examination up to and including Winter 2012 are:

Horror

Comedy

(b) British Film and Stars

This topic looks at some of the distinctive characteristics of one of the

prescribed stars (see below) with a particular focus on how their screen role

and persona are used to aid the development of narrative and underlying

themes. There may be some specific focus on context and on issues of

representation in which the star brings specific meanings to bear. The

principal emphasis, however, is on engaging with the chosen films. The

candidate must show a detailed knowledge of a minimum of

 

two films.

 

 

 

 

 

Stars for examination up to and including Winter 2012 are:

Julie Christie

Ewan McGregor

Julie Christie

Ewan McGregor

 

Stars for examination up to and including Winter 2012 are:

Julie Christie

Ewan McGregor

Julie Christie

Ewan McGregor

 

 

Note that only

 

 

 

 

 

British

films by the chosen star are permitted for study,

although reference may be made to other examples of the chosen star’s

work.

(c) British Film and Production Companies

This topic looks at some of the distinctive characteristics of one of the

prescribed production companies (see below) with a particular focus on

narrative and theme in their films. There may be some specific focus on

context and on issues of representation in which particular characteristics of

the production company are manifested. The principal emphasis, however, is

on engaging with the chosen films. The candidate must show a detailed

knowledge of a minimum of

 

 

 

 

two films.

(d) British Film and Culture

This topic looks at a particular moment in British culture and considers how

film responded to this moment. The focus should be primarily on film narrative

and the themes these narratives convey. There will be some specific focus on

contextual knowledge and on issues of representation. The principal

emphasis, however, is on engaging with the chosen films. The candidate

must show a detailed knowledge of a minimum of

 

 

 

 

two films.

(e) British Film: Social-Political Study

 

The cultural periods for examination up to and including Winter 2012 are:

Swinging Britain: 1963 – 1973

Thatcher’s Britain: the 1980s

(e) British Film: Social-Political Study

The cultural periods for examination up to and including Winter 2012 are:

Swinging Britain: 1963 – 1973

Thatcher’s Britain: the 1980s

(e) British Film: Social-Political Study

(e) British Film: Social-Political Study

 

Producers for examination up to and including Winter 2012 are:

Ealing Studios

Working Title

Producers for examination up to and including Winter 2012 are:

Ealing Studios

Working Title

(d) British Film and Culture

This topic looks at a particular moment in British culture and considers how

film responded to this moment. The focus should be primarily on film narrative

and the themes these narratives convey. There will be some specific focus on

contextual knowledge and on issues of representation. The principal

emphasis, however, is on engaging with the chosen films. The candidate

must show a detailed knowledge of a minimum of

 

 

 

 

two films.

(e) British Film: Social-Political Study

 

The cultural periods for examination up to and including Winter 2012 are:

Swinging Britain: 1963 – 1973

Thatcher’s Britain: the 1980s

(e) British Film: Social-Political Study

The cultural periods for examination up to and including Winter 2012 are:

Swinging Britain: 1963 – 1973

Thatcher’s Britain: the 1980s

(e) British Film: Social-Political Study

(e) British Film: Social-Political Study

 

 

Prescribed study for examination up to and including Winter 2012:

 

 

 

 

 

‘Living

with Crime’

This study allows for an exploration of films in which characters are caught up

in crime or are living within a culture of crime. While allowing for a study of UK

crime films from a genre perspective, the principal focus should be on social

and political issues raised by the films. In some cases the narrative may

concern characters being drawn in to crime or trapped in a crime culture or

trying to resist crime. Films may include

 

 

 

 

Sweet Sixteen, Bullet Boy and

 

London to Brighton

 

 

 

 

 

. Alternatively, older films such as Performance and

Get

 

Carter

may be studied. Questions that may be raised include ones relating to

gender, race and class. The candidate must show a detailed knowledge of a

minimum of

two films.

 

 

 

 

(f) British Film: Identity Study:

(f) British Film: Identity Study:

 

 

Prescribed study for examination up to and including Winter 2012

 

 

 

 

 

:

‘Borders

and Belonging’.

This topic is concerned with basic questions of identity and belonging in

relation to a place which is called the United Kingdom but in which “British” is

an increasingly contested term. The focus may be on films in which the

narrative deals with the experience of migrants and asylum seekers – or in

which characters question their attachment to or alienation from the idea of

being “British”. Films could focus on migrant and minority experiences in for

example

 

 

 

 

Last Resort, Dirty Pretty Things, Yasmin, Ghosts and Gypo

.

Alternatively the focus could be on national and regional identity which sets

itself in opposition to a ‘united kingdom’ – such as

 

 

 

 

Trainspotting, A Way of Life

 

or

 

 

 

 

In the Name of the Father.

 

films must be chosen from a specific genre or dealing with a specific theme.

Since this is a comparative study, the two films selected should enable sufficient

comparison and contrast to be made. One way of ensuring this is to select films

made at different historical moments.

There are no prescribed films for this section. A list of examples is available in the

Since this is a comparative study, the two films selected should enable sufficient

comparison and contrast to be made. One way of ensuring this is to select films

made at different historical moments.

There are no prescribed films for this section. A list of examples is available in the

 

Section C: US Film – Comparative Study

Two

 

 

 

 

 

Section C: US Film – Comparative Study

 

 

Two

 

 

 

 

 

films must be chosen from a specific genre or dealing with a specific theme.

Since this is a comparative study, the two films selected should enable sufficient

comparison and contrast to be made. One way of ensuring this is to select films

made at different historical moments.

There are no prescribed films for this section. A list of examples is available in the

Since this is a comparative study, the two films selected should enable sufficient

comparison and contrast to be made. One way of ensuring this is to select films

made at different historical moments.

There are no prescribed films for this section. A list of examples is available in the

 

 

Notes for Guidance

 

 

 

 

 

. The following are indicative if a historical approach is adopted:

Double Indemnity

 

 

 

 

 

and

The Last Seduction

 

42

nd Street and

 

 

 

Chicago

 

My Darling Clementine

and

 

 

 

Unforgiven.

It is also possible to study remakes such as:

It is also possible to study remakes such as:

 

 

The Invasion of the Body Snatchers

 

 

 

 

(1956 and 1978)

King Kong (1933 and 2005)

A thematic approach is also possible. For example, two films dealing with personal

identity:

 

 

 

 

Imitation of Life and Boys Don’t Cry.

Assessment

Candidates will take an examination of two and a half hours, assessing AO1 and

AO2.

Section A: Producers and Audiences (40 marks)

One

 

 

 

 

 

stimulus-response question from a choice of two.

Normally three pieces of stimulus material will be included for each question. These

will include one or more of:

Normally three pieces of stimulus material will be included for each question. These

will include one or more of:

 

 

Section A: Producers and Audiences (40 marks)

One

 

 

 

 

 

stimulus-response question from a choice of two.

Normally three pieces of stimulus material will be included for each question. These

will include one or more of:

Normally three pieces of stimulus material will be included for each question. These

will include one or more of:

 

The Invasion of the Body Snatchers

 

 

 

 

 

(1956 and 1978)

King Kong (1933 and 2005)

A thematic approach is also possible. For example, two films dealing with personal

identity:

 

 

 

 

Imitation of Life and Boys Don’t Cry.

Assessment

Candidates will take an examination of two and a half hours, assessing AO1 and

AO2.

Section A: Producers and Audiences (40 marks)

One

 

 

 

 

 

stimulus-response question from a choice of two.

Normally three pieces of stimulus material will be included for each question. These

will include one or more of:

Normally three pieces of stimulus material will be included for each question. These

will include one or more of:

 

Section A: Producers and Audiences (40 marks)

One

 

 

 

 

 

stimulus-response question from a choice of two.

Normally three pieces of stimulus material will be included for each question. These

will include one or more of:

Normally three pieces of stimulus material will be included for each question. These

will include one or more of:

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

Visual material (including marketing materials, images from the internet and

magazine publications)

 

 

 

 

•

 

 

 

 

Written material (including extracts from trade journals, fan magazines,

internet sources and other media)

 

 

 

 

•

 

Material in table form (including numerical information)

 

@@@

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

434. Luke & Chris -a-filming again

www.thelonggoodnight.tk

433. AS Media Representation Revision task Christmas 2008

Please read following document about representation. there will be questions in the mock exam covering the main ideas. Happy Christmas!

 

Media Studies

Key Concepts

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

REPRESENTATION

By Steve Baker

Adapted for Sandringham by David Allison and Simon Wallace

2007 edition

2

3

Table of Contents

Mediation ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1

Mediation — three things to look for ……………………………………………………………………………. 2

Representation……………………………………………………………………………………………………2

What is representation?……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2

TASK………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3

TASK………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3

Society, the individual and representation……………………………………………………………………… 3

The Reflective view of representing……………………………………………………………………………… 3

The Intentional view…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4

The Constructionist view…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4

Society? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5

Stereotypes………………………………………………………………………………………………………….6

Representation — How we stereotype: …………………………………………………………………………. 6

The four parts of a media stereotype …………………………………………………………………………….. 7

Changing representations – Countertypes ……………………………………………………………………… 8

Can we ever avoid stereotypes?……………………………………………………………………………………. 9

Hegemony versus Pluralism……………………………………………………………………………….9

Hegemony………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9

Pluralism………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10

4

1

ITV’s

 

 

 

The Bill

is one representation of the police

Representing reality

Mediation

Every time we encounter a media text, we are not seeing reality, but someone’s version of it.

This may seem like an obvious point, but it is something that is easily forgotten when we get

caught up in enjoying a text. If you see a picture of a celebrity kissing her boyfriend, you may

find it unsurprising that the picture has been altered and does not show the reality of the situation,

but in fact we should bear this in mind whatever we encounter in the media. The media

place us at one remove from reality: they take something that is real, a person or an event and

they change its form to produce whatever text we end up with. This is called mediation. You

should be looking for this with any media text.

Think about a new album by your favourite group, for example: this is not just the sound of a

few musicians playing together in a studio. Instead, the reality of the sound that they might

make has been mediated before it reaches you. Engineers and producers have re-modelled the

sound and artists have packaged the album. Newspapers and magazines have reported the

group and created a context for the album so that most people probably had an opinion about

it before it came out. Once again, whatever sound the group made in the studio has been

highly mediated before it gets to you.

If you ever go to see a comedy show

recorded for the television, you will see

the process of mediation in action. What

might end up as a half hour broadcast,

will be recorded over an entire evening

— jokes that might seem spontaneous

when watched on the TV will have been

endlessly repeated until “just right”. The

studio audience will have been trained

into laughing in exactly the right way by

warm up men and the text that finally

reaches the public will also be given

context by use of soundtrack music and

computer graphics. The whole experience

of hearing a few jokes will have been

mediated.

Of course, most of us are aware of this — we know that what we are seeing in a film or a

Soap isn’t real — we just allow ourselves to forget for the time that the programme is on that

it is a fiction. At the same time, we all have ideas in our heads of some kinds of texts which

might be somehow less mediated — it is obvious that a fictional programme isn’t real, but

when we encounter something like the television news, we are more likely to believe in the

straightforward nature of the “truth” we are receiving. In fact, the News is just as sure to be

mediated as anything else — someone has decided that these are the few news items that are

the most “newsworthy” and has chosen the shots that are used to tell the stories, the graphics

that will go with them and the tie that the presenter will be wearing which will distract you so

much while you are watching. Whatever version you get of what has gone on will end up being

highly mediated — very different from the experience of someone who was at the scene

— as you will know if you have ever seen a news event taking place.

2

Mediation — three things to look for

1. Selection:

 

 

Whatever ends up on the screen or in the paper, much more will have been left

out — any news story has been selected from hundreds of others which the producers decided

for you were less interesting, any picture has been chosen from an enormous number of alternatives.

 

2. Organisation:

 

 

The various elements will be organised carefully in ways that real life is

not: in visual media this involves mise-en-scene and the organisation of narrative, in the recording

of an album the production might involve re-mixing a track. Any medium you can

think of will have an equivalent to these. This organisation of the material will result in …

 

3. Focusing:

 

 

mediation always ends up with us, the audience being encouraged towards concentrating

on one aspect of the text and ignoring others. If you are watching a film the camera

will pan towards an important character, in a tabloid the headlines will scream, for your attention.

It can be easy to ignore how different from our everyday lives this is. If you are walking

through a field, you are unlikely to see a sign saying “look at this amazing tree.” You make

your own decisions about what is worth our attention. The media text, through mediation,

tries to do this for us.

This kind of task is actually very important because in the hands of experienced media professionals

the practice of mediation can be transparent — we do not notice it happen and are

fooled into thinking that we are experiencing some kind of reality. Once again remember:

 

All media texts involve mediation which you should train yourself to look for.

Representation

The result of this process of mediation is that we are given a version of reality which is altered:

those are never the real people that we are seeing but representations of them which

have somehow been created. It is time now to look at this idea of representation and how it

happens.

What is representation?

The Oxford English Dictionary gives two definitions of the word:

1. To represent something is to describe or depict it, to call it up in the mind by description

or portrayal…..; to place a likeness of it before us in our mind.

2. To represent also means to symbolise, stand for, to be a specimen of or to substitute

for; as in the sentence, “In Christianity, the cross represents the suffering and crucifixion

of Christ.”

It is worth thinking about each of these for a moment: the first one is the more straightforward

— the media are in the business of describing things to us — they represent people and types

of people to us so that we end up feeling that we know what they are like.

3

TASK

What, if anything, are the following people used as symbols of?

Nelson Mandela Britney Spears Madonna David Beckham

Can you think of any other examples of people who have become symbols?

TASK

What is your opinion of any of the following

Paris Hilton Jennifer Lopez The Duchess of Cornwall* Star Trek fans Immigrants

In most of these cases it is unlikely that you know these people personally — what impression

that you have of them must come from the media. They have given us descriptions that have

affected our views of these people. The second of the two dictionary definitions is slightly

more difficult but also useful. A representation is something that symbolises something else.

The example the dictionary gives of the cross is an obvious one, but in the media you can find

plenty of others. David Beckham, as he is represented in the media is not just a football

player, but also a symbol of many things which some in the media think is positive and negative:

fashion icon, adulterer etc.

* aka the former Camilla Parker-Bowles, second wife of Prince Charles.

Society, the individual and representation

Of course it is too simple to talk just about the media mediating reality and creating representations;

we need a more subtle understanding of the process. To get this I will look briefly at

some different ideas people have had about how representation works. You could broadly

separate these into three:

The Reflective view of representing

According to this view, when we represent something, we are taking its true meaning and trying

to create a replica of it in the mind of our audience — like a reflection. This is the view

that many people have of how news works — the news producers take the truth of news

events and simply present it to us as accurately as possible.

4

The Intentional view

This is the opposite of the Reflective idea. This time the most important thing in the process

of representation is the person doing the representing — they are presenting their view of the

thing they are representing and the words or images that they use mean what they intend them

to mean. According to this theory, if you see a picture of an attractive person drinking a can of

Coke in an advert, it will have the same meaning to you as the advertiser intended — go away

and buy some!

The Constructionist view

This is really a response to what have been seen a weakness in the other two theories — constructionists

feel that a representation can never just be the truth or the version of the truth that

someone wants you to hear since that is ignoring your ability as an individual to make up your

own mind and the influences of the society that you live in on the way that you do so. This

booklet will broadly be taking a Constructionist approach to representation so it is worth me

spelling out this idea again.

Any representation is a mixture of:

1. The thing itself.

2. The opinions of the people doing the representation

3. The reaction of the individual to the representation

4. The context of the society in which the representation is taking place.

Here’s an example of how this works:

If you’ve seen the film Independence Day,

you may have been amused or annoyed at the

way that British People were represented as

upper class idiots. If you consider the

different parts of the Constructionist

approach to representation, they would work

like this:

1. There must be some British people

who the producers either encountered

in reality or in other media texts.

2. They formed an opinion of them that

they were stuck up idiots which they

used as the basis of their

representation.

3. As an individual watching this, you

chose whether to believe the

representation was valid or not.

4. In doing this, you were influenced by

the fact that you are yourself British

— an American watching the film

would probably have come to a

different conclusion.

5

Society?

The last two parts of this equation — the individual and society are an enormously difficult

area which you will cover in more detail later in the course. You may find that you end up

covering them in your other subjects as well — the study of personality and the individual is

Psychology and the study of Society is Sociology and you should feel free to try to apply anything

that you learn in these subjects to the media.

For now it is worth thinking about the influence of society on what representations we receive.

If you think of one of someone like the Duchess of Cornwall, you can see that the idea

of

 

 

society

having a view of her is obviously a simplification. In society there are ardent royalists

and committed republicans, people who hate anyone involved in the collapse of a marriage

and those who believe that relationships are complicated and personal to the people involved

— a multitude of views — so how can we say that society has an influence on our

views of someone?

The truth is that amid all this confusion of opinions, some kinds of ideas dominate and are

shared by a majority of people. We call views about how things should be and how people

should behave an ideology and if an ideology is shared by the majority of people in a culture

it is called the dominant ideology.

The group of ideas that make up the dominant ideology in Britain are not something that remains

static — they change as new ideas are encountered and people discuss them. For example

the dominant ideology in Britain used to be opposed to homosexual practises. Over time,

however, opposition has changed to tolerance and then to acceptance for the majority, allowing

openly gay men to present news and entertainment programmes and enter civil partnerships

with one another.

Here are some things that are generally agreed to be part of the dominant ideology in Britain:

 

•

 

 

 

People should put their families first.

•

 

 

 

People should work for their money and not show off too much about how much they

have.

•

 

 

 

Women should behave modestly.

•

 

 

 

Women should look after their appearance.

You may not agree with all of these morals, but if I am right that they are part off the dominant

ideology, the chances are that they are the feelings of most people.

Let’s relate this back to the Constructionist view of representation. If you see an article in one

of the tabloids about David Beckham having an affair with another woman behind Victoria’s

back, you may be shocked and disappointed because his behaviour goes against what the

dominant ideology suggests married men and fathers should do. Also because representations

often act as symbols of other things, you will also be likely to think that his behaviour shows

exactly what is wrong with celebrity culture / footballers’ egos etc.

Many constructionists believe that this itself has an effect on what the dominant ideology actually

is — after all the dominant ideology is only the belief of the majority of people so if

you and others like you end up even more sure that rich people shouldn’t flaunt their wealth

as a result of seeing the article, then the dominant ideology has become a bit stronger. You

could see the whole process that the constructionists describe as being a kind of negotiation.

Over the years representations are accepted or rejected by the majority of people and the

dominant ideology is gradually changed.

6

Stereotypes

It’s worth now looking in more detail at what is going on in the other parts of the process —

the individuals and the media and their relationship with what is being represented. This

brings us on to the question of stereotypes — another word which is maybe worth a dictionary

definition:

A standardised, often simplified, mental picture or attitude that is held in common

by members of a group.

A stereotype is a simplification that we use to make sense of a real person or group which is

much more complicated. In reality there are many different kinds of Germans who are all individuals,

but it is much easier to fool ourselves into believing that all Germans cheat with

beach towels and eat strange sausages. The example that I have just given may seem harmless,

but in fact it is arguably racist. Stereotypes are potentially highly dangerous but stereotyping

itself is impossible to avoid — it is a natural function of the human mind — something

that we all do in order to survive mentally in the confusing world around us. The following

theory explains how it works.

Representation — How we stereotype:

The fact that we naturally see the world in this kind of shorthand way, with connections between

different character traits, allows the media to create simplistic representations which we

find believable. Implicit personality theory explains this process.

•

 

 

 

As humans we use our own unique storehouse of knowledge about people when we

judge them.

 

•

 

 

 

Our past experience is more important than the true features of the actual personality

that we are judging — traits exist more in the eye of the beholder than in reality.

 

•

 

 

 

We have each a system of rules that tells us which characteristics go with other characteristics.

•

 

 

 

We categorise people into types (e.g. workaholic, feminist etc.) to simplify the task of

person perception.

 

•

 

 

 

Once we have in our minds a set of linked traits which seem to us to go together, they

form a pattern of connections that can be called a prototype. In other words the mix of

traits that we may consider “typical” of feminists are a prototype of what a feminist is

like to us.

 

•

 

 

 

If we encounter someone in reality or in the media who seems to fit neatly into a prototype,

we feel reassured. It confirms our stereotyped view — we do not need to think

further.

 

•

 

 

 

Also once a few of the traits seem to fit our prototype, we will immediately bundle

onto the person the rest of the traits from the prototype even if we do not know if they

fit them in reality.

 

•

 

 

 

Research has shown that if we find people who do not fit into our prototypes, we will

form very strong often impressions of them — it is surprising to us and disconcerting

— it forces us to think more deeply.

 

•

 

 

 

On the other hand, if it is at all possible, we will try to twist the truth to fit in with our

prototype, often ignoring traits which do not fit into our neatly imagined pattern of

characteristics. This will particularly happen as time passes and we have time to forget

7

things that do not fit in. This can lead to enormous differences between our perceptions

of people and the reality.

 

•

 

 

 

All of this distortion happens naturally in our minds before the media have had their

chance to simplify and distort. We do a lot of the business of stereotyping ourselves. It

is almost as if we conspire with the media to misunderstand the world

So stereotyping is something that we all do — a natural part of the way our minds work and

not in itself necessarily a bad thing. If, for example, you were a teacher attempting to plan out

a course which would be suitable for your class, you would need to work from the basis of a

kind of stereotype of the needs of “typical” students. Having said this, even in cases where

stereotypes are valuable like this, the good teacher would have then tried to go beyond the

stereotype and looked for exceptions.

This is probably something we should all do when we encounter stereotypes — be aware that

just as with the process of mediation the stereotypes involve selection, organisation and focusing

of the complicated reality.

 

The four parts of a media stereotype

How can the media build a stereotype? With any group of people, there will obviously be an

enormous number of things that can be used in a stereotype, but because stereotyping is a

form of simplification, normally the most obvious things are used. These are:

1. Appearance — this can include, physical appearance and clothing as well as the sound of

the voice. e.g. “all teachers wear dreadful old clothes”

2. Behaviour — typical things that people in this group might do. “Grannies like to knit”

These first two features of media stereotypes are the same when we make our own stereotypes.

They simply involve us thinking of something that may be true of some of the group in

question and applying it to all.

The third feature of media stereotyping is peculiar to the media:

3. The stereotype is constructed in ways that fit the particular medium.

This is more difficult to understand but it is crucial for you to look for it. If you watch a film

such as

 

 

Silence of the Lambs

and then look at the tabloid coverage of Fred West, you are seeing

the same stereotype (the typical Serial Killer) being used, but there are obviously big differences

which will depend on the specifics of the media used:

The film will use close ups of the killer’s leering face, soundtrack music and reaction shots of

terrified victims to create their version of the stereotype.

The newspaper will use emotive headlines, blurred pictures of victims and police mug-shots

of the killer along with shocking text and interviews with survivors.

In each case the text will create a stereotype which it’s audience will find familiar, but it will

do it in very different ways.

 

4 There will always be a comparison whether real or imaginary with “normal” behaviour.

The features which make up a stereotype are always those which seem somehow different

from every-day behaviour. In fact you could almost start any stereotyped description by saying:

“this group are different because they…”

Of course the idea of what is normal in any society is an absurdity and therefore in order to

make it clear to us that the stereotyped characters are not behaving “normally” there will fre8

Independence Day:

 

 

 

To what extent does Jeff Goldblum’s

character

 

 

 

also

represent a countertype?

quently be “normal” people used to act as a contrast to them. So, in a film like

 

 

Silence of the

Lambs

 

 

, Jodie Foster is used to give the audience someone to compare Lecter’s behaviour

with. On the news, tales of striking workers (another stereotype) are always contrasted with

interviews with “normal” people who are suffering as a result of their actions.

The ‘normal’ person will act as a representative of us in the text — at the same time reflecting

what we might feel, or telling us what to feel depending on your point of view.

 

TASK

Create your own chart of stereotypes based on those that you have encountered in two or

more different media (for example, television and newspapers)

Stereotype Appearance Behaviour Media example

Changing representations – Countertypes

You may have seen the blockbuster film

Independence Day

 

 

. In this film there is a

character played by Will Smith who is

clearly intended to be a positive and

strong hero. As such, he goes against

many of the previous negative stereotypes

of black people in American films. In one

crucial scene from the film we see him

responding to the danger of an alien’s

attack by simply kicking it.

You may also have seen another film

released around the same time:

 

 

Mars

Attacks

 

 

. In this there is also a black hero

who also responds to the attack of a bunch

9

of aliens by punching one of them. Both of these films were made virtually simultaneously:

how can we explain the fact that they end up containing what are almost identical scenes? In

both cases, the representation of black people in these films has probably resulted from the

very best of intentions. The films’ producers were probably tired of years of negative stereotyping

of black people in the movies and wanted to create a new representation. So, instead of

showing black people as criminals or as animals they have represented them as noble heroes

who get straight to the point and take no nonsense. They have also emphasised the humour of

these characters and have made sure that they are attractive enough to act as macho role models.

One analysis of this would be to say that they have created a new kind of stereotype — a positive

stereotype which could be called a

 

 

countertype

. In the same way as a traditional stereotype

was made by selecting the negative behaviour of some members of the group, the

countertype homes in on some features which are positive. However the countertype is still

very much a stereotype — it is still a simplification of the enormous diversity that must exist

in the population of black Americans. As such, although it is an improvement on a negative

stereotype, it is still not the whole truth and many black people would probably still find it

very annoying in the way that it limits their behaviour.

 

Can we ever avoid stereotypes?

You will probably be able to find Countertypes whenever there is a group being represented

positively for the first time by the media. It seems as if the media find it difficult to adapt to

change and will always use the old techniques of simplification even if they’re trying to be

nice about someone. This has led some people to question whether it is ever possible to create

a representation that is free of stereotypes. If you think back to implicit personality theory, it

should be clear how natural the process of stereotyping is to us and how attractive we find this

simplified view of the world. However, if we are aware of this tendency in our own minds, we

must be able to at least try to avoid it and to recognise it in the media texts that we are presented

with.

Hegemony versus Pluralism

There are few ‘facts’ in Media Studies. The more you read, the more you will discover that

academics from different ideological starting points draw different conclusions about the way

the media works, and its relationship with its audience. Representation can be considered

from two very different ideological standpoints.

Hegemony

The hegemonic model says that the ruling classes maintain their power through control of

ideas and culture rather than force. In hegemony, the ruling classes govern by consensus: they

control the way the media represents the world so as to influence the way people think about

the world, and the ruling classes. This can become a running battle between rivals.

A more sophisticated approach to hegemony argues that the mass media adopt a consensus of

what is normal; a commonsense which is actually an ideology. The very nature of common

sense means that the audience does not question it. You might think of it as a kind of civil religion:

a set of values that the majority of people subscribe to without thinking about it.

An Italian Marxist, Antonio Gramsci, developed the idea of Hegemony, suggesting that the

power that lies at its heart is constantly being negotiated, rather than enforced.

10

Pluralism

The pluralistic model comes from the opposite perspective to Marxism. Pluralism says that

the media is diverse, with a wide range of available choices for consumers. Rather than the

media influencing consensus, consensus values influence media representations. If particular

representations are dominant, pluralists argue, it is because they are popular among the audience,

not because powerful media institutions are ‘pushing’ a particular ideology.

After all, the main function of the mass media is to entertain – to please – their audience: to

provide representations that meet audience expectations. This is where stereotypes come in:

they pander to the views of the audience. The more media institutions pander to their audiences,

the more money they can make.

11

Steve Baker

 

(with additional material by Simon Wallace and David Allison)

 

 

432. Film Distribution

Film Distribution The Facts – a good blog on film distribution

Film Distributors Association – facts and figures on film distribution in the UK and USA

Screen Daily – and industry website useful for data

An Introduction to Distribution

The UK Film Council’s Prints and Advertising Fund

Wingate Films – for current info on film distribution

431. Audience and Institution Key Concepts

430. Media Magazine free sample

http://www.englishandmedia.co.uk/download/admin/mm/mm9.pdf

429. Film studies example questions

http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/9780415454339/examplequestions.asp

428. A little flipcard game for media/film terms

http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/9780415454339/flipcards.asp

427. A2 Media Issues and Debates: Film Genre

http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/Venere-50793-Film-Genre-Concept-examination-main-debates-surrounding-functions-purposes-genr-as-Entertainment-ppt-powerpoint/

426. Film studies study skills

http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/9780415454339/study-skills.asp

425. New media/social media

http://www.slideshare.net/neilperkin/whats-next-in-media

424. Film Posters

http://www.impawards.com/

423. Media Studies Revision links

AUDIENCE
http://www.robertsmyth.co.uk/media/audience.htm
http://www.stevewlb.zen.co.uk/Frame.htm
http://www.mediaknowall.com/alevkeyconcepts/audience.html
http://www.mediaed.org.uk/posted_documents/Audience.html

INSTITUTION

http://www.robertsmyth.co.uk/media/institution.htm
http://www.mediaknowall.com/alevkeyconcepts/Institution.html

GENRE
http://www.robertsmyth.co.uk/media/genre.htm
http://www.mediaknowall.com/alevkeyconcepts/genre.html

REPRESENTATION

http://www.robertsmyth.co.uk/media/representation.htm
http://www.mediaknowall.com/alevkeyconcepts/representation.html
http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Modules/MC30820/represent.html

NARRATIVE

http://www.robertsmyth.co.uk/media/narrative.html
http://www.mediaknowall.com/alevkeyconcepts/narrative.html

SEMIOTICS
http://www.robertsmyth.co.uk/media/semiotics.htm

IDEOLOGY
http://www.mediaknowall.com/alevkeyconcepts/ideology.html

 

 

 

 

 

422. AS Film FM2 Film marketing Case Study

You have been working on your FM2 case studies undertaking a detailed study into the marketing and promotion of a Hollywood film of your choosing. Your collection of artefacts can take two forms -

a. A dedicated FM2 blog where you can post all your research, videos, trailers, links etc. or

 

b. A paper based file where you keep all of your research in a print form.

Ideally I would like all of you to create a Film Studies blog where you can keep all of your film work from here on (including all your preparatory work for FM2). Your Hollywood case study needs to show evidence of the following:

1. Research into the studio/s involved in the production and distribution of your chosen film. What questions does this raise?

2. What marketing, promotion and merchandise deals have you discovered? What do these say about the target audience/ the ideology of the film and the company behind it?

3. How successful was the movie in terms of box-office ratings both here and abroad? What was it’s USP? What led to its success?

In short I want you to find out as much information about your chosen film from the initial stages of production through to marketing, distribution, exhibition and audience reception (some primary research) and exploration of the REVIEWS process and the impact this has on reception. You will then use all of your collected material to construct an essay on the main thrust of this examination - the relationship between PRODUCERS and AUDIENCES. Here is an example of the WJEC FM2 exam paper for you to see how this project relates:

www.wjec.co.uk/uploads/publications/5797.pdf

I have also found some really useful links to support you with the Hollywood case study below.

www.filmology.co.uk/uk_film_distributors.aspx

www.filminfocus.com/

www.moviemarketingmadness.com/blog/

www.impawards.com/

421. AS Film FM2 Hollywood case studies links

This blog focuses on ‘Distribution’ facts:

http://moviedistributionfacts.wordpress.com/2008/06/03/using-a-study-of-popular-movie-audiences-to-promote-your-film/

This site explores Hollywood studios as Oligopolies ‘multi-national corporations’ that dominate media output. Some interesting stuff especially in the Movie Industry section.

http://www.oligopolywatch.com/2003/08/06.html

This site is great for accessing ‘fan-sites’ where you can find loads of great marketing and publicity for your case study film+ facts/figures to do with box office sales and studio info.  
http://www.hollywood.com/